Laurent Fabius (center), French Foreign Minister and President of the the UN World Climate Change Conference 2015 (COP21), shows a file as he attended an activity named "Action Day" during the climate negotiations in Paris, France, on December 5 (CFP)

Against ominous news of sinking Pacific islands, Beijing smothered in pollution and fearsome droughts in California, the leaders of 150 countries hastily crowded the 2015 United Nations climate change conference. At the meeting in Paris, the heads representing each country have attempted to cement their efforts to stave off the catastrophic consequences predicted as a result of rising global temperatures.

According to calculations by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), without an agreement in Paris, the world will likely experience an increase of 4-5 degrees Celsius by 2100. That far exceeds the limit that scientists have proposed--declaring that temperatures should rise no more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.

Reviewing the Earth developmental history, one can find that the temperature differences between the pre-industrial world and the last ice age were merely 4-8 degrees Celsius. Considering that just 4-8 degrees of chill marked the difference between ancient freezing wastelands and the clement warmness of modern times, what sort of tormented future would 4-5 degrees of extra warmth cause?

"Climate change is the defining issue of our age. It is defining our present. Our response will define our future. To ride this storm, we need all hands on deck," said the United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, who called for concerted efforts to build a low-carbon, climate-resilient future.

However, the formidable problem is unlikely to be solved at once. "Compared to empty promises, what really matters is action," said Yang Fuqiang, a senior adviser on climate, energy and environment for the Natural Resources Defense Council China Program.

"The Paris conference is not the finishing line but a new starting point," said Chinese President Xi Jinping at the opening ceremony of the Paris conference on November 30. He hoped hopes that an equitable and balanced governance mechanism can be put in place in order to tackle global warming.

His view was echoed by Kenneth Berlin, President of the Washington, D.C.-based nonprofit organization Climate Reality Project, who noted that people should not expect the climate crisis to be completely solved during a two-week period. Berlin stressed that all countries have different responsibilities in the battle against climate change based on their historical pollution records and ability to reduce current emissions.

Concerning the course of action, developed countries have to play the role of leaders. They should work in collaboration with their developing counterparts in the technology and development sectors, and provide funds to the poorest countries, said Jennifer Morgan, Global Director of the Climate Program for World Resources Institute, a research NGO also based in Washington, D.C.

India's Environment Minister Prakash Javadekar called on developed countries to intensify their support not just in mitigation but also adaptation. Javadekar claimed that this action is necessary in order for richer countries to shoulder their historical responsibilities and reflect the differences between developed and developing countries.

"The common but differentiated responsibilities should be fully respected by all the countries," echoed Xie Zhenhua, China's special representative on climate change affairs.

Financial support 

At the 2009 Copenhagen conference, developed countries pledged to provide $100 billion a year by 2020 to the developing world. Despite continual urging from the international community, progress in maintaining the promise has remained sluggish.

On the other hand, a report released by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) claimed that a total of $62 billion has been raised in 2014, up from $52 billion in 2013.

"It's double counting," argued Bomo Edna Molewa, South Africa's Environment Minister, who called for greater transparency to determine the real disbursement numbers.

"We welcome the OECD studies, but it has not been acknowledged by developing countries, because there has been no explicit standard with regard to the sources of those funds and apparently there is double counting," Xie said. He stressed that transparency in financial issues is paramount in order to strengthen mutual political trust in fighting against climate risks.

"Developed countries should inform the public of how much they gave and to whom, while recipients should let all people know where they get their money from and what they'll use it for," said Xie, noting that a transparent mechanism needs to be established to track the funds.

Beyond that, China insists that a straightforward map and timetable regarding the funding should be introduced as early as possible. That is in addition to the ultimate reality that those developing countries will still require further assistance than the $100 billion promised to them even after 2020.

"When all countries begin to take actions to fight against climate change after 2020, there will be huge demand for money. Therefore, China welcomes diversified sources of funds--such as those from private enterprises and foundations--to provide more financial assistance to developing countries," Xie said.

Though being a developing country itself, China also voluntarily provides financial support for its peers in order to improve its capacity for mitigation, adaptation, management and financing from multilateral funds. In September, China announced it will set up the South-South Climate Cooperation Fund with an investment of 20 billion yuan ($3.1 billion).

"The South-South Climate Cooperation Fund is a horse of an entirely different color from the Green Climate Fund, because what China has done is voluntary, while developed countries have an obligation to offer financial support," Xie noted.

In fact, the developed world has been attempting to expand the donor base for the Green Climate Fund by forcing other developing countries to shoulder their own obligations regarding capital contribution.

The UNFCCC requires developed nations to extend financial assistance to their developing counterparts and encourages mutual aid among developing nations. However, the two types of financial support have essential differences, and developed nations should face up to their pledges, rather than shake off their obligations, said Zhou Dadi, a senior research fellow with the Energy Research Institute of the National Development and Reform Commission.

Measuring ambitions 

While a total of 183 countries published their plans for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, their commitments were not enough to keep the global temperatures from rising below 2 degrees Celsius by 2100, Laurent Fabius, president of the Paris conference, said ahead of the meeting.

The least developed countries, small island countries and newly established Climate Vulnerable Forums even proposed to lower the rising temperature limit to 1.5 degrees Celsius, due to risks such as rising sea levels.

To contain the rising temperatures within the prescribed 2 degrees Celsius range, the European Commission chief negotiator Elina Bardram suggested the carrying out of dynamic reviews of the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) submitted by each country. Bardram also suggested improving the emission reduction goals in days to come.

Meanwhile, the United States demanded developing countries to report their own carbon pollution as well as the progress being made toward emission reduction. Nonetheless, they also proposed to monitor the forest coverage of Brazil and Indonesia by the use of their satellites. However, some developing countries took such measures as an infringement of their national sovereignty, and said that developed countries have yet to fulfill their promises concerning financing and technology transfers.

China also proposed introducing a regular review of the INDCs, so that a clear view of the overall progress can be observed. "It can also serve as a platform to share experiences and innovative technologies for all parties involved," said Xie.

This suggests that, rather than pursuing an invasive and punitive model, all countries involved should take up mutual checks on each other's progress through the use of INDCs. In addition, overall evaluations and incentive mechanisms should be introduced to foster positive motivation in response to this global challenge.

(Reporting from Paris )

Copyedited by Bryan Michael Galvan

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